[165], Gradually, as mamluks increasingly filled administrative and courtier posts within the state, Mamluk innovations to the Ayyubid hierarchy were developed. [98] Shaykh's main goal in office was restoration of the state's authority within the sultanate, which saw further plagues in 14151417 and 1420. [58][59] The Ilkhanids took advantage of the disarray of Baybars' succession by raiding Mamluk Syria, before launching a massive offensive against Syria in the autumn of 1281. [75] Moreover, an-Nasir Muhammad's being the son of a mamluk instead of a mamluk himself risked undermining his position among the largely mamluk elite. [20] Opposition among the Salihiyyah to as-Salih rose when the latter ordered the assassination of his brother Abu Bakr al-Adil in 1249, a task that affronted many of the Salihiyyah and by whom was rejected; four of the Salihiyyah ultimately agreed to execute the controversial operation. [30] The Bahriyyah and Jamdariyyah were represented by their patron, Faris ad-Din Aktay, a principal organizer of Turanshah's assassination and the recipient of Fakhr ad-Din's large estate by Shajar al-Durr; the latter saw Aktay as a counterweight to Aybak. [45] However, Baybars success in establishing centralized rule resulted in the consolidation of the Mamluk Sultanate. Inal's reign was particularly noted by historians for the severe absence of restraint among the roughly 1,000 mamluks under his direct authority, known as the julban or ajlab.The julban were responsible for mass disturbances throughout the sultanate. [148] In Hama, the Mamluks had permitted the Ayyubids to continue to govern until 1341 (its popular governor in 1320, Abu'l Fida, was granted the honorary title of sultan by an-Nasir Muhammad), but otherwise the nuwwab of the provinces were Mamluk emirs. The Mamluk Sultanate (14th and 15th Centuries) Asia at the Death of Kublai Khan (1294 CE) Sufi Orders (1145-1389 CE) Travels of Ibn Battuta (1325-1354 CE) Decorative motifs in one art form were often applied in other art forms, including architecture. Create the most beautiful study materials using our templates. [70], Baybars II ruled for roughly one year before an-Nasir Muhammad became sultan again in 1310, this time ruling for over three consecutive decades in a period that is often considered by historians of the Mamluk period to be the apex of both the Bahri regime specifically and the Mamluk Sultanate in general. Seljuk Empire Mamluk Sultanate Delhi Sultanate Geographic Location and Dates they maintained power Social Social classes & social . Tall, increasingly vertical building meant to dominate city streets within tightening city walls. [110] On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the various Sufi orders. metal-faced doors, doorknockers, window grilles, and window shutters, and aims to . ", "A Damascene Eyewitness to the Battle of Nicopolis", "The Complex of Sultan Hasan in Cairo: Reading Between the Lines", "Social Milieus and Worldviews in Mamluk Adab-Encyclopedias: The Example of Poverty and Wealth", "The Position and Power of the Mamluk Sultan", "The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamluk Period", "Representing the Mamluks in Mamluk Historical Writing", "Identifying a Late Medieval Cadastral Survey of Egypt", "Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350-1516", "The Re-Emergence of the Mamluks Following the Ottoman Conquest", "The Term Mamlk and Slave Status during the Mamluk Sultanate", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamluk_Sultanate&oldid=1132582141, States and territories established in 1250, States and territories disestablished in 1517, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2021, Articles to be expanded from February 2022, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. [208][209] The decoration of monuments also became more elaborate over time, with stone-carving and colored marble paneling and mosaics (including ablaq) replacing stucco as the most dominant architectural decoration. In an attempt to dislodge Aybak, the Bahriyyah petitioned an-Nasir Yusuf to claim the Ayyubid throne and invade Egypt, but an-Nasir Yusuf initially refused. [11][12][10] The other official name was 'State of the Circassians' (Dawlat al-Jarakisa) during Burji rule. [130] There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Coptic Christians and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses of worship in times of intercommunal tensions. Hulagu Khan's Siege of Baghdad ended the Islamic Golden Age. The Mamluks came to Egypt largely from the Turkic tribes of Central Asia and the Caucuses. Everything you need for your studies in one place. Instead, many entered into mercantile, scholastic or other civilian careers. While not just a stepping stone between eras, the Mamluks represented a progression from the world of fragmented and disparate Islamic states to largely Turkic powers that exemplified cultural diversity and innovation. Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside. [26] Moreover, an electoral college dominated by the Salihiyyah convened to choose a successor to Turanshah among the Ayyubid emirs, with opinion largely split between an-Nasir Yusuf of Damascus and al-Mughith Umar of al-Karak. King Louis IX and a few of his surviving nobles surrendered and were taken as prisoners, effectively ending the Seventh Crusade. Timur ended his occupation of Syria in 1402 to pursue his war against the Ottomans in Anatolia, who he deemed to be a more dangerous threat to his rule. [65] Lajin was unable to retain the sultanate and al-Nasir Muhammad was restored to power in 1298, ruling a fractious realm until being toppled a second time by Baybars II, a Circassian mamluk of Qalawun, who was known to be more wealthy, pious and cultured than his immediate predecessors. They were made of brass or bronze with inlaid decoration, though in the later periods decoration was often engraved rather than inlaid. [95] A major innovation to this system by Barquq was the division of Egypt into three provinces (niyabat) similar to the administrative divisions in Syria. Coloured glass had been common in the preceding Ayyubid period, but during the Mamluk period enamel and gilding became the most important techniques of decorating glass. [129] Coptic bureaucrats would often be restored to their positions after the moment of tension passed. In the Persian culture, succeeding Indo-Muslim monarchs built a "centralized organization" whose mission was to mobilize human and physical resources for the battles. [144] The tribe remained strong after an-Nasir Muhammad's death, but frequently rebelled against the succeeding Bahri sultans, but were restored each time, before its sheikh was finally executed as a rebel in 1353. [53] The conquest of Nubia was not permanent, however, and the process of invading the region and installing a vassal king would be repeated by Baybars' successors. [162] The Royal Mamluks were virtually the private corps of the sultan. [89] Sha'ban was able to rule as the real power in the sultanate until 1377, when he was killed by mamluk dissidents on his way to Mecca to perform the Hajj. After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Selim I attacked the Dulkadirids, an Egyptian vassal, and sent their chief's head to al-Ghawri. [55], In July 1277, Baybars died en route to Damascus, and was succeeded by Barakah. [76] Unable to meet the military's need for new mamluks, the sultans often resorted to turning Ilkhanid deserters or prisoners of war into soldiers, sometimes while the war the prisoners were captured in was still ongoing. [45], With Bahri power in Egypt and Muslim Syria consolidated by 1265, Baybars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing Arsuf in 1265, and Halba and Arqa in 1266. Trade continued nonetheless and despite papal restrictions on trade with the Muslims during the Crusades. On 5 April 1250, covered by the darkness of night, the Crusaders evacuated their camp opposite al-Mansurah and began to flee northward towards Damietta. [151] It more or less involved the election of a sultan by a council of emirs and mamluks (who would give him an oath of loyalty), the sultan's assumption of the monarchical title al-malik, a state-organized procession through Cairo at the head of which was the sultan, and the reading of the sultan's name in the khutbah (Friday prayer sermon). [137] The Mamluks brought about a similar decline of the Armenian Orthodox Church after their capture of the Armenian Cilician Kingdom in 1374, in addition to the raids of the Timurids in 1386 and the conflict between the Timurids and the nomadic Turkmen Aq Qoyunlu and Kara Qoyonlu tribal confederations in Cilicia. In 1323, the two parties signed a peace treaty. Then, Aybak's successor, another Mamluk commander named Qutuz, officially founded the Mamluk Sultanate in 1250 CE. [81] Isma'il ruled until his death in August 1345, and was succeeded by his brother al-Kamil Sha'ban. [155] According to Holt, the factious nature of emirs who were not the sultan's khushdashiyyah derived from the primary loyalty of emirs and mamluks to their own ustadh (master) before the sultan. Title Did the Mamluks Have an Environmental Sense? [194] However, the frequent outbreaks of the Black Plague led to a decline in the Mamluk territories' production of goods such as textiles, silk products, sugar, glass, soaps, and paper, which coincided with the Europeans' increasing production of these goods. From bondservants to masters, the Islamic Mamluk warriors continued to prove themselves on the battlefield, in bureaucracy, and as exemplary leaders within the Medieval Dar Al-Islam. Increased circulation of copper coins and the increased use of copper in dirhams often led to inflation. [61] Following the dtente with the Ilkhanate after 1280, Qalawun launched a wide arrest campaign to eliminate internal dissent, imprisoning dozens of high-ranking emirs in Egypt and Syria. [178] The Mamluks effectively put an end to this tendency, with the exception of some areas, namely in Mount Lebanon, where longtime Druze iqta holders, who became part of the halqa, were able to resist the abolition of their hereditary iqtaat. [172] The Mamluks used the same currency system as the Ayyubids, which consisted of gold dinars, silver dirhams and copper fulus. [68], Khalil's death in 1293 led to period of factional struggle, with Khalil's prepubescent brother, an-Nasir Muhammad, being overthrown the following year by a Mongol mamluk of Qalawun, al-Adil Kitbugha, who in turn was succeeded by a Greek mamluk of Qalawun, Husam ad-Din Lajin. [88] In 1365, attempts by the Mamluks to annex Armenia, which had since replaced Crusader Acre as the Christian commercial foothold of Asia, were stifled by an invasion of Alexandria by Peter I of Cyprus. The Mamluk Sultanate was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) in the mid-13th-early 16th centuries. [110] The continuing invasions of Syria by Mongol armies led to further waves of Syrian immigrants, including scholars and artisans, to Egypt. [131] Many Coptic Christians decided to convert to Islam or at least adopt the outward expressions of Muslim faith to protect their employment, avoid jizyah taxation and avoid official measures against them. The Mamluks reinstalled a Caliph within their Sultanate, but he acted as more of a spiritual figurehead within their state rather than a political leader. Moreover, the major industries of sugar and textile production were also dependent on agricultural products, namely sugar cane and cotton, respectively. Political turmoil and assassinations were not uncommon within the Ayyubid Sultanate, promoting instability at all levels of the Caliphate. [99] During his reign, Shaykh reestablished the state's fiscal administration to replenish the treasury. The Mamluk sultans also controlled south-eastern Asia Minor and western Arabia. Warring continued between the Mamluks and Mongols, with the Mamluks consistently defeating the Central Asian invaders. For example, Mamluk glassware had an influence on the Venetian glass industry. [110], Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of Kipchak Turkic, namely the Mamluk-Kipchak language was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. Stop procrastinating with our smart planner features. [101] The latter had grown wealthy from their burgeoning trade with central Africa and achieved a degree of local popularity due to their piety, education and generally benign treatment of the inhabitants.[101]. [107] Two Ottoman era Mamluks, Iwaz Bey's Mamluk Yusuf Bey al-Jazzar and Jazzar Pasha were known for massacring Bedouins and given the name "butcher" (al-Jazzar) for it. [53] The latter was overthrown by Kanz al-Dawla, who an-Nasir Muhammad temporarily ousted in a 1323/24 expedition. "[156] The foundation of Mamluk organization and factional unity was based on the principles of khushdashiyya, which was a crucial component of a sultan's authority and power. [216] In modern times, from the late 19th century onwards, a "neo-Mamluk" style also appeared, partly as a nationalist response against Ottoman and European styles, in an effort to promote local "Egyptian" styles. [53], An-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of his descendants to the throne in a period marked by political instability. The Mamluks grew uneasy. [95] The new Egyptian niyabas were Alexandria, Damanhur and Asyut. [155], The sultan was the head of state and among his powers and responsibilities were issuing and enforcing specific legal orders and general rules, making the decision to go to war, levying taxes for military campaigns, ensuring the proportionate distribution of food supplies throughout the sultanate and, in some cases, overseeing the investigation and punishment of alleged criminals. They executed another brother of the two in Cairo and at Nasr Gate they hoisted the heads of the 2 brothers. Who was the founder of the Mamluk Dynasty? Mamluk Sultanate. [17] To provision his mamluks, as-Salih forcibly seized the iqtaat (fiefs; singular iqta) of his predecessors' emirs. [129], In Syria, the Mamluks uprooted the local Maronite and Greek Orthodox Christians from the coastal areas as a means to prevent their potential contact with European powers. The Mamlk Sultanate in the reign of Baybars I (1260-1273) This was a short-term arrangement: Muslim political . Caliphs, on the other hand, played a more spiritually significant role. The mamluk was an "owned slave", distinguished from the ghulam, or household slave. By then, mamluk solidarity and loyalty to the emirs had dissipated. Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan and leader of the Ilkhanate subdivision of the Mongol Empire, was marching through the Middle East. Later, the Mamluks included Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Hungarians, Russians, and more. The Crusade ended with King Louis IX defeated and ransomed back to France for a hefty sum (some historians estimate the ransom to be equivalent to a third of France's economy at the time). [118] Under the Bahri sultans, the promotion of Sunni Islam was pursued more vigorously than under the Ayyubids. [172] In Egypt in particular, the Nile River's centralizing influence also contributed to Mamluk centralization over the region. [64], Qalawun was the last Salihi sultan and following his death in 1290, his son, al-Ashraf Khalil, drew his legitimacy as a Mamluk by emphasizing his lineage from Qalawun, thus inaugurating the Qalawuni period of Bahri rule. [35] While al-Mansur Ali was sultan, the strongman in Egypt was Aybak's former close aide, Sayf ad-Din Qutuz,[37] who also had hostile relations with the Salihiyyah, including the Bahri mamluks. Emirates NBD. One Mamluk, Al-Alfi was reported by al-Jabarti to marry Bedouin women many times, sending those back he did not like and keeping those that pleased him. [217][218][219], State in Egypt, Hejaz and the Levant (12501517), Extent of the Mamluk Sultanate under Sultan, "The Cambridge History of Egypt", Volume 1, (1998) P. 250. These mamluks were called the "Salihiyyah" (singular "Salihi") after their master. [144] In Sharqiya in Lower Egypt, the Tha'laba tribes were charged with overseeing the postal routes, but they were often unreliable in this regard and ultimately joined the Al A'id tribes during their raids. [97], During Barquq's reign, in 1387, the Mamluks were able to force the Anatolian entity in Sivas to become a Mamluk vassal state. These ports were frequented by European merchants, who in turn sold gold and silver ducats and bullion, silk, wool and linen fabrics, furs, wax, honey and cheeses. [76], To legitimize their rule, the Mamluks presented themselves as the defenders of Islam, and, beginning with Baybars, sought the confirmation of their executive authority from a caliph. [114] Among the Bahri sultans and emirs, there existed a degree of pride of their Kipchak Turkish roots,[116] and their non-Kipchak usurpers such as sultans Kitbuqa, Baybars II and Lajin were often de-legitimized in the Bahri-era sources for their non-Kipchak origins. Similar to the Mongols, they were expert horseback archers, mixing speed with deadly accuracy. Delhi Sultanate allowed for a more self-reflective, linear foundation of the Sultanate in the practices of Muslim statecraft. [128] The manifestations of anti-Christian hostility were mostly spearheaded at the popular level rather than under the direction of Mamluk sultans. [123] The Shadhiliyyah lacked an institutional structure and was flexible in its religious thought, allowing it to easily adapt to its local environment. Identify your study strength and weaknesses. [41] In September 1260, the two sides met in the plains south of Nazareth in a major confrontation known as the Battle of Ain Jalut. [90] Nonetheless, in the following year, Barquq toppled as-Salih Hajji with the backing of Yalbugha's mamluks and assumed the sultanate, adopting the title of Baybars, "al-Malik az-Zahir". As had been the case during the Mamluk dynasty, the Mamluk elite continued to be replenished by purchases from . [45] During his early reign and through heavy financial expense, Baybars rebuilt and stringently trained the Mamluk army, which grew from 10,000 cavalry to 40,000, with a 4,000-strong royal guard at its core. Free and expert-verified textbook solutions. [56] In 1277, Baybars launched an expedition against the Ilkhanids, routing them in Elbistan in Anatolia, before ultimately withdrawing to avoid overstretching their forces and risk being cut off from Syria by a second, large incoming Ilkhanid army. [123] While the Mamluks patronized the Sunni ulama through appointments to government office, they patronized the Sufis by funding zawiyas (Sufi lodges). [177] The iqta of the Muslims differed from the European concept of fiefs in that iqta represented a right to collect revenue from a fixed territory and was accorded to an officer (emir) as income and as a financial source to provision his soldiers. [197] This contributed to and coincided with the fall of the sultanate. [92] In Cairo, Barquq's loyalists took over the citadel and arrested as-Salih Hajji. [74], The third reign of an-Nasir Muhammad also saw a departure from the traditions of succession and administrative elevation of his predecessors since he observed in his first two reigns that such traditions had been ignored anyway, while sultans were being assassinated and mamluks were abusing other mamluks in bids for power. [101] The first expedition involved the sacking of Edessa and the massacre of its Muslim inhabitants in retaliation for the Aq Qoyonlu's raids against the Mamluks' Mesopotamian territories. [72] Early into his third reign, in 1310, an-Nasir Muhammad imprisoned, exiled or killed any Mamluk emirs that supported those who toppled him in the past, including the Burji mamluks. Create flashcards in notes completely automatically. [38], By the time of Aybak's death, the Bahriyyah had entered the service of al-Mughith Umar of al-Karak, who agreed to invade Egypt and claim the Ayyubid sultanate, but al-Mughith's small Bahri-dominated invading force was routed at the frontier with Egypt in November. They were mostly drawn from among the Cumans-Kipchaks who controlled the steppes north of the Black Sea. [59] Among these early policies were the elimination of illegal taxes that burdened the merchant community and extensive building and renovation projects for Islam's holiest sites, such as the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem and the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron. [88] The rebellious mamluks were supported by Sultan al-Ashraf Sha'ban, who Yalbugha installed in 1363. She chose Aybak, a Mamluk commander. [181] Land was assessed by the periodic rawk (cadastral survey), which consisted of a survey of land parcels (measured by feddan units), assessment of land quality and the annual estimated tax revenue of the parcels, and classification of a parcel's legal status as waqf (trust) or iqta. The ruling Ottomans warred between the ambitious Albanian mercenary regiment under the command of Muhammed Ali and the last remnants of the Mamluks in Cairo. The lower-ranking emirs also had their own corps, which were akin to private armies. The term 'Mamluk Sultanate' is a modern historiographical term. Carl F. Petry also considers the statecraft, foreign policy, economy and cultural legacy of the Sultanate, and its interaction with polities throughout the central Islamic world and beyond. License & Copyright Based on Wikipedia content that has been reviewed, edited, and republished. . [162] As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they would often utilize their respective forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. [90][91] Barquq was made atabeg al-asakir in 1378, giving him command of the Mamluk army,[89] which he used to oust Baraka in 1380. Although the Crusade was a catastrophe for the Christian forces, initial differing strategies between the reigning Sultan and Mamluks resulted in the execution of many military commanders. [101] Barsbay's efforts at monopolization and trade protection were meant to offset the severe financial losses of the sultanate's agricultural sector due to the frequent recurring plagues that took a heavy toll on the farmers. Then in the summer of 1260, the . During a brief power vacuum, the Mamluks elevated themselves from slaves to rulers of a new sultanate, the Mamluk Sultanate. [204][205][206] While Cairo was the main center of patronage, Mamluk architecture also appears in other cities of their realm such as Damascus, Jerusalem, Aleppo, and Medina. At around the same time, Baybars' forces captured Safad from the Knights Templar, and shortly after, Ramla, both cities in interior Palestine. [177] According to historian J. van Steenbergen, The iqta system was fundamental in assuring a legitimized, controlled and guaranteed access to the resources of the Syro-Egyptian realm to an upper level of Mamluk society that was primarily military in form and organization. The Mamluks defeated the Mongolian Ilkhanate on multiple occasions, exhibiting their martial power and leading to a peace treaty in the 14th century. Profits from trade in these regions led consolidation of their political control. [63] Its location facing as-Salih's tomb was meant demonstrate Qalawun's lasting connection to his master and to honor the Salihiyyah. A variant thereof (al-Dawla al-Turkiyya al-Jarakisiyya) emphasized the fact that the Circassians were Turkic-speaking.[10]. [32], Afterward, Aybak proceeded to purge those in his retinue and in the Salihiyyah whom he believed were disloyal to him, causing a temporary exodus of Bahri mamluks, most of whom settled in Gaza, but also in Upper Egypt and Syria. [38] The surviving Mu'izzi and Bahri mamluks made their way to Gaza, where Baybars had created a virtual shadow state in opposition to Qutuz. 5. [164] Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and put an end to the previous improvised nature of the various Ayyubid military forces of Egypt and Syria. [147], The Mamluk sultan was the ultimate government authority, while he delegated power to provincial governors known as nuwwab as-saltana (deputy sultans, sing. [16] Most of the mamluks in the Ayyubids' service were ethnic Kipchak Turks from Central Asia, who, upon entering service, were converted to Sunni Islam and taught Arabic. [162] The Royal Mamluks, who were under the direct command of the sultan, were the highest-ranking body within the army, entry into which was exclusive. What European nation attacked Egypt in the 7th Crusade, provoking a response by the Mamluks? However, the sons of mamluks could enter and rise high within the ranks of the military hierarchy,[160] but typically did not enter military service. [122] This policy change may have been partly motivated by a desire to accommodate an increasingly diverse Muslim population whose components had immigrated to Egypt from regions where other madhabs were prevalent. [147] The Mamluk territorial domain was virtually the same as that of the Ayyubid state i.e. Bank of Alexandria. [51] Around that time, the Mamluks had conquered the Red Sea areas of Suakin and the Dahlak Archipelago, while attempting to extend their control to the Hejaz, the desert regions west of the Nile, and Barqa (Cyrenaica). The Mamluks under Sultan Qutuz and Baybars routed the Mongols in 1260, halting their southward expansion. , window grilles, and window shutters, and was succeeded by Barakah, 's! Their positions after the moment of tension passed Sultanate was a short-term arrangement: political! A more spiritually significant role on agricultural products, namely sugar cane cotton! Akin to private armies continued between the Mamluks included Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Hungarians,,! ] Isma'il ruled until his death in August 1345, and more in Egypt in particular, the and. ] Coptic bureaucrats would often be restored to their positions after the moment of tension passed, died! 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